Mysore Kingdom literature
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The Mysore Kingdom (1399-1947) was founded by Yaduraya in 1399 as a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire and became an independent kingdom in early 17th century, after the decline of the Vijayanagara empire. Though many scholars and musicians may have existed in their court from the beginning of their rule, it is only from the time of Raja Wodeyar (1578 CE) that records of scholars, writers and their writings exist in references and only from the time of King Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1638) that records of writings are actually available.[1] The reign of the Mysore kingdom is considered a golden age in Kannada literature, especially in the field of musical treatises, compositions and drama. Not only were their courts adorned by famous writers and composers, many of the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and have made important contributions.[1]
During this period, though traditional literature in philosophy and religion etc. continued to be popular, a wave of writings in such new topics as chronicles (vamshavali), biographies, history, encyclopedia, novel, drama, treatises on music amd musical compositions became popular.[2] A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.[3][4] Musical and devotional compositions were written in dvipadi (two liners), tripadi (three liners), choupadi (four liners) shatpadi (six liners), saptapadi (seven liners), Vachana, sangatya (verses rendered musically to the accompaniment of a musical instrument with rhythm) and champu (mixed prose-verse) metres. A light and lyrical style of carnatic compositions in Kannada called javali or javadi was introduced by King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.[5]
The Haridasa movement that began in the 14th century with the saints of the Madhva order of Udupi continued to flourish with later day saints who wrote many dasara padagalu (devotional songs of dasas').[6] Literature by Brahmins and Shaivite writers were numerous, with a lesser number of well known Jain writers making important contributions. Among royalty, Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1672-1704) and Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868) are well known for their literary proficiency though contributions were made by other kings and queens as well.[7][8] Another remarkable development of the later period was the influence of English literature and classical Sanskrit literature on Kannada literature.[6] The changing political situation in India, the freedom struggle, rise in Kannada nationalism and the arrival of the printing press all had its impact on Kannada literature.[6]
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[edit] 17th-century literature
References made to literatures from the time of Raja Wodeyar (1578-1617) provide ample evidence of the patronage given by the king to writers. In his court, Tirumala Iyengar or Tirumalarya (1600) composed the Karna Vrittanta Kathe in Kannada in sangatya metre. Tradition has it that Tirumalarya was a descendent of Anantaraya, an acharya (teacher) nominated by the 11th century philosopher Ramanujacharya. [9] King Chamaraja Wodeyar (1617-1637) translated into Kannada the Valmiki Ramayana from Sanskrit and called it Chamarajokti Vilasa. The other writings of this time were Ashwashastra, Hayasara Samucchaya and Brahmottra Kanda.[10]
King Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1638-1659) was honoured with title Sangeeta Sahitya Shastra Visharada indicating his expertise in music and literature.[11] Famous Kannada writers in his court were Govinda Vaidya (1620) and Shantaveera Deshika (1650). Govinda Vaidya, a native of Srirangapatna (in modern Mandya district) wrote a book called Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijaya in sangatya metre and melodeous Kannada describing the the life style, the kings court, popular music and types of musical compositions of that time in twenty six chapters (sandhis).[12] Shantaveera Deshika's contribution was the Shivaganga Charitra in sangatya metre. In 1700, Chamiah wrote a eulogy of King Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar called the Devarajendra Sangatya.[13]
The reign of Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673-1704) produced prolific writers among who the king himself was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and a musician. He is known to be the earliest composer of the dynasty and held the title Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam.[14] To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music in Kannada called Geetha Gopala which, though inspired by Jayadeva's Geetha Govinda, had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing that attempted to propagate Vaishnava faith in Kannada language.[15] The work consists of two parts each with seven sections with each section having seven songs. It is considered an extraordinary effort and an asset to students of music and literature. He also composed twenty seven songs in raga (tune) Kambhoji.[16] The kings writing Chikkadevarajabinnapam was a poem in praise of lord Cheluvanarayanaswamy, the residing deity at Melkote.[17]
Among well known scholars, Tirumalarya, (son of the earlier Tirumalarya in the court of Raja Wodeyar) a native of Srirangapatna and a childhood friend of the king was the court poet. He was also a minister in the court of the Queen of Madurai. Well known among his writings in Kannada are Chikka Devaraja Saptapadi, a musical treatise and a eulogy of his patron king rendered in seven sections with fifty two songs. In this writing, the poet exhalts the king to the level of "God on earth". Along with Geetha Gopala this writing is considered an important treatise on music of the 17th century.[18] His other well known contributions in Kannada are Apratimavira Charite, a eulogy of his patron king, Chikkadevaraja Vijaya, an account of the kings conquests in sixteen chapters and Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, the earliest available Kannada historical written in prose describing the kings ancestory.[19] In addition, he composed in tripadi, sangatya, kirtanas and other devotional songs in Kannada and Telugu.[20]
Chikkupdhyaya, also known as Lakshmipati who was born in 1650 in Terakanambi (in modern Mysore district) was the most prolific Kannada writer of the time with over thirty writings to his credit. His well known works are Vishnupurana (1691), Kamalachala Mahatmya (1681), Hastigiri Mahatmya (1679), Rukmangada Charite (1681), Satvikabrahma-Vidya-Vilasa on Visishtadvaita philosophy,[21] Yadugiri Mahatmya in praise of Kadambi Srirangacharya and Yadavagiri Mahatmya in praise of Kadambi Lakshmanacharya, numerous compositions in champu , sangatya, gadya metres, seventy songs in praise of his patron king with pen name Chikkadevaraja, a composition called Shringarada Hadugalu and several commentaries.[22] Chidananda (1675), a Jain Kannada poet wrote philosophical compositions called Tatwada Kirtanegalu and other compositions called Neeti Nrimaya and Munivamsha Bhyudaya in sangatya metre.[23]
Singaraya, a brother of Tirumalarya wrote the earliest available drama in Kannada called Mitravinda Govinda in 1680 inspired by the Sanskrit drama Ratnavali by Sriharsha.[24] Saint Vaikunta Dasa, a Haridasa and a native of Belur composed in Kannada many Kirtanas (devotional compositions) on Vishnu with the pen name Vaikunta, a song called Kapatamata and many Suladis.[25] Timmakavi wrote Hari Vilasa in sangatya metre and Yadavagiri Mahatmya in 1677 and Mallarasa authored Dasavatara Charite.[26] Among women Kannada writers, Srirangamma and Sanchi Honnamma were popular. Srirangamma wrote a Padmini Kalyana and Sanchi Honnamma a Vokkaliga native of Yelandur (in modern Bangalore district) won accolades from her patron king for writing a unique book called Hadibadeya Dharma, a book intended to bring out the struggles of women in building society in their daily roles a wife, mother, daughter, daughter-in-law, mother-in-law, sister and sister-in-law.[27][28]
Lakshmisa's Jaimimi Bharata is considered on of the most popular works on Kannada poetics of modern times. Other important writings in Kannada by Brahmins is the Asrasastra by Ramachandra, Uttara Ramayana by Tirumalevaidya, Bhagavadgite by Nagarasa and a writing on Geometry called Kshetraganita by Timmarasa.[29] Among Jain writers, Bhattakalanka stands out as a grammarian of extraoridinary talent. His Karnataka Sabdanusasana (1604) is considered an exhaustive Kannada grammer with the sutras and commentary in Sanskrit. Padmana Pandita authored the Hayasara samuchchaya and Chandrashekara wrote the Ramachandra charitra, his Jain version of the story of the Hindu god Rama.[29]
Most famous among Virashaiva writers were Sarvajna to whom is ascribed numerous pithy poems in the tripadi metre. His Vachanas and sayings which deal with religion, ethics, morals and even riddles are used by scholars and common people alike even today. Shadaksharadeva wrote the Vrishabhendra Vijaya, Sabarasankara Vilasa and the Rajashekara Vilasa (1655) containing poems that rival Lakshmisa's Jaimimi Bharata in popular Kannada poetry.[29] Other well known writers were Harisvara who wrote Prabhudeva Purana, Siddhananjesa the author of Raghavanka Charitra and Gururaja Charitra, Prasabhushana (or Pemmisetti) author of Gurubhaktandara Charitre and Mummadi Tamma the author of Sankara Samhita.[29]
[edit] 18th-century literature
The period of rule of Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673-1714) may be considered the age of Yakshagana compositions. A linguist, the king was proficient in Kannada, Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Prakrit. He authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages, though all are written in Kannada script.[30] Though Yakshagana in its rudimentary form is known to have existed in Telugu language going back to the 14th century in the form of songs sung by women, the credit of introducing a philosophical theme to it goes to saint Paramananda Tirtha and the credit of writing the earliest Yashkaganas that included sangita (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance) goes to King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1704-1714)[31] These Yakshaganas became popular first in South Kanara region of modern Karnataka and the drama troupes quickly spread to Mysore, Yelundur and other regions in interior Karnataka.[32]
Cheluvambe, a queen of King Krishnaraja Wodeya I (1714-1732) was an accomplished Kannada writer and her important works are Varanandi Kalyana which narrates the wedding of Varanandi (the daughter of the Badshah of Delhi) and the author's deity, Cheluvaraya Swamy of Melkote. The author envisioned Varanandi to be the reincarnation of Satyabhama, the consort of Hindu god Krishna. Her composition Venkatachala Mahatmya written in choupadi metre is a on the Hindu god Venkateshwara residing on the Vrishabhagiri hill. She also composed on Alamelu Mangamma, the consort of Hindu god Venkateshwara of Tirupati.[33] Chenniah wrote the Padmini Parinaya in sangatya metre.[34]
In the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (1734-1766), Kalale Nanjaraja (1720) was the most noted scholar. A native of Kalale (near Nanjangud in modern Mysore district), Nanjaraja came from a family of powerful warriors and statesman. A devout Shaivite, he is known to have held court in parallel to the king and earned the title "Nutan Bhojaraja" for his literary persuit.[35] He was an expert in many languages and is known to have written more than twenty works in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu. His most famous writing is in Sanskrit and is called Sangita Gangadhara or Gita Gangadhara. The writing is basesd on Jayadeva's Gita Govinda and narrates the romance of Hindu god Shiva and his consort Parvati on the banks of the Kapila River, a tributary of the Kaveri River.[36]
Other Shaiva writers in Kannada were, Nurondiah (1740) who composed the Soundarya Kavya in sangatya metre a eulogy of his patron king, Sankara kavi authored Chorabasava Charitre. Among Jain writers in Kannada, Payanna wrote the Ahimsacharitre, Padmaraja wrote the Pujyapada Charitre in 1792, Padmanabha authored the Ramachandra Charitre and Surala wote the Padmavati Charitre, Jayendra was the author of Karnataka Kuvalayananda.[37] Shalyada Krishnaraja, a poet from the royal family was proficient writer in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. His contributions to treatises on music are Nija Dipika Ratna, Anubhava Rasayana, Bhakti Marga Sarovara and Gnana Sarovara both with eighty six compositions and a host of sangatya, gadya, vachana compositions and eighteen philosophical compositions in the work called Shalyada Arasinavara Tikina Kirtane.[38]
Among Brahmin writers in Kannada, Helavanakatte Giriyamma, a Haridasa wrote the Chandrahasana Kathe, Lakshmakavi wrote Bharata and Rukmangada Charite, Venkatesha authored Halasya Mahatmya in champu metre, Konayya wrote the Krishnarjuna Sangara, Timmamatya narrated his version of the Ramayana in Ramabhyudaya Kathakusumamanjari and to Balavaidya Cheluva is ascribed the writings Lilavati and a encyclopedia on precious stones called Ratnasastra.[39]
[edit] 19th-century literature
King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868) is called the "Morning star of renaissance in Karnataka". He gave munificient grants to scholars of all kinds while being a prolific writer in Kannada himself. Over forty noteable writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandhika Parinaya is popular. There are two versions of this, one is the sangatya and the other a drama.[40] In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra.[41]
After 1799, the British completely took over the administration of the kingdom and the king devoted all his time to develop the fine arts and earned the title "Abhinava Bhoja".[42] The king composed many carnatic songs in Kannada in a light lyrical style called Javali or Javadi (a style that has its roots in Mysore), under the title Anubhava Pancharatna giving it as philosophical bend. He scholarship in Kannada is well acclaimed and his compositions are seen as parallels to the vachanas poems of Virashaiva poets and the devotional songs (padagalu) of the Haridasas.[43] Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also wrote three important treatises. They are the Sri Tatwanidhi and Swara Chudamani on music and Sara Sangraha Bharata on dance.[44] For the first time in South India, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III incorporated musical iconography into writings on music in his Sri Tatwanidhi. This work is considered a beautiful combination of literature, music and painting. The language used is Sanskrit and is written in Kannada script and is essentially an encyclopedia of Purana, Agama, Jyothishya (astrology), music, history (Itihasa), Tantra and Shilpa (art) written on 1500 royal sized sheets in nine chapters containing one thousand pictures.[44]
In the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Aliya Lingaraja Urs, a native of Heggadadevanakote (in modern Mysore district) took the place as the fore most writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. His name Aliya means "son-in-law" in Kannada as he was married to two of the kings daughters. To the credit of Lingaraja Urs are over fifty works spanning such forms as literature, songs, Javalis, Yakshagana and drama. For his contributions to the fine arts, he earned the title Ubhaya Kavita Visharada (master of poetry in two languages) and Sarasa Kavi Kula Tilaka. His compositions are written with many pen names all starting with the term "linga", such as "lingaraja" and "Linganripa".[45] Famous among his Kannada writings is the well known poem Prabhavati Parinaya and the Yakshagana called Girija Kalyana in sangatya metre containing six chapters. In this work the author narrates the birth of Girija, the daughter of Himavanta, her youthful days, her penance and finally her marraige to Hindu god Shiva.[46][47]
Eager to spread their gospel in Kannada, Christian missionaries were responsible for printing the earliest books in that language (1817). The first Kannada bible was printed in 1820, Rev. Reeve compiled the earliest English-Kannada dictionary in 1824 and the Rev. Carrey published the Kannada grammar in 1817.[48] Modern Kannada prose was born in 1823 when Mudra Manjusha, a translation of the Sanskrit play by Vishakadatta was written by Kempu Narayana in the court of Krishnaraja Wodeya III.[49] The influence of English literature and poetry on Kannada was evident from the numerous songs of prayer composed by the missionaries.[50]
The rise of Devalapurada Nanjunda to the stature of court poet under King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III came under unusual circumstances. A native of Nagarle village in Nanjangud (modern Mysore district), he received his education at Devalapura and was initially employed as a mere attendent in the kings palace. Once when an important seer (saint) from the Sringeri Advaita order visited the kings court, the king ordered his staff to contribute one month's salary as a token of respect for the seer. Unable to come up with this amount, Nanjunda composed a poem for the seer. Impressed by his poettic ability, the seer adviced that king to make Nanjunda his court poet.[51] For his scholarship in Kannada and Sanskrit, he received the title "Ubhaya Bhasha Kavi". Among his famous compositions in Kannada are Sougandhika Parinaya in sangatya metre, Samudra Mathana Kathe as a Yakshagana, Sri Krishna Sarvabhoumara Charitre in sangatya metre, Krishnendra Gite in choupadi metre and others.[52] In Sanskrit, his composed the Pattabhisheka Mahotsava Varnanam.
A luminary in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and Chamaraja Wodeya IX (1868-1901) was Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore. Known as Kannada Nataka Pitamaha, Shastri composed the first state anthem of Mysore kingdom called Kayou Sri Gowri for the coronation of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX.[53] Because of his proficiency in Kannada and Sanskrit, his knowledge of the fine arts, especially drama, he was appointed the head of Chamaraja Nataka Sabha (a drama college) in 1882. Basavappa Shastry authored many dramas in Kannada and translated Shakespere's "Othello" to its Kannada version called Shurasena Charite with the help of D.C. Subba Rao. His translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are many and include Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali.[54] In addition to translating or writing original dramas, Basavappa Shastry incorporated hundreds of musical compositions into the script of the drama. Other well known Kannada writers in the court of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX were S.G. Narasimhacharya, Nandalige Lakshminaranappa, Dhondo Narasimha Mulabaglu, Santa Kavi and B. Ventakacharya.[55]
Modern Kannada literature gained momentum under the patronage of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV (1902-1940). The earliest modern novels in Kannada language are the Suryakantha by Lakshmi Gadagkar (1892) and the Indrabayi (1899) by Gulvadi Venkata Rao. Translations of novels from Marathi, Bengali was also popular.[56] The rise of a national consciousness from the freedom struggle, the birth of Kannada nationalism and pride in the history of ancient Karnataka had a direct impact on the literature of this age. Dr. J.F. Fleet wrote the Dynasties of Canarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency in 1894, under the patronage of Mysore Kingdom Dr. Louis Rice compiled an exhaustive history of Karnataka in his Epigraphia Carnatica (1886), Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions (1909). Dr. Bhandarkar published the Early History of the Dekhan (1884) and Robert Sewell wrote the A Forgotten Empire (1901). Soon after, Alur Venkata Rao consolidated all these historicals into Kannada in his book Karnataka Gatavaibhava in 1917.[57]
[edit] Notes
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p(i)
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p23-26
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
- ^ Kamath (2001), p281
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p54
- ^ a b c Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
- ^ Kamath (2001), p230, p250
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p23, p26
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p6
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p7
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p10
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p11
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p16-17
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p20
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p21
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p25, p27
- ^ Kamath (2001), p230
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p29-30
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p23-24
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p31
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p24
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p31-32
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p32
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p62
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p33
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p33
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p34
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p24
- ^ a b c d Narasimhacharya (1988), p24
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p37-38
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p37
- ^ Kamath (2001), p281
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p42-43
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p43
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p45
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p46
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p49-50
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p26
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p55
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p53
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p54-55
- ^ a b Pranesh (2003), p55
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p78
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p80
- ^ Narasimhacharya (2003), p26
- ^ Kamath (2001), p279
- ^ Kamath (2001), p280
- ^ Kamath (2001), p281
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p87
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p87-88
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p81
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p82
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p26
- ^ Kamath (2001), p281
- ^ Kamath (2001), p281
[edit] References
- Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003), Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638-1947 A.D.), Vee Emm Publications, Bangalore EBK 94056
- R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988 ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
- Suryanath U. Kamat, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
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